How Benedict Arnold Became a Traitor

Bestselling author Nathaniel Philbrick tackles the most notorious act of treason in American history. Philbrick, author of Mayflower and In the Heart of the Sea, turns his focus to the tumultuous period that is also the focus of this blog: the American Revolution. 

In his book Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution, Philbrick explains that Arnold's treason can only be understood when one studies its context. Other than perhaps Arnold's choice in wives, the same temptations more or less faced other notables in the American Revolution, including the great George Washington. Fortunately for America, Washington withstood such temptations proving himself to be the man of exceptional integrity the nation desperately needed. 

Writing a review of Philbrick's book, John Daniel Davidson explains: 

It’s a wonder that Washington endured such terrible treatment from civilian overseers and managed to keep his army together; a lesser man would have either resigned in disgust or declared himself emperor and taken what his army needed by force. Or he would have done what Arnold did: conclude that the country’s experiment in freedom had failed and that the only way to restore peace and order was to help the British win the war. 

To read the rest of Davidson's review, check out... 

"The Seduction of Benedict Arnold" at National Review

Why Did George Washington Retire Before He Became President?

One of the questions asked often on the Internet is why George Washington retired as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army before becoming President of the United States. The simple answer is that General George Washington was done with public life....in 1783. Once the British signed the Treaty of Paris recognizing American independence, General Washington's task was done and all he wanted to do at that point was head home to Martha and Mount Vernon. He had no interest in serving in any public office, political or otherwise, when he retired in 1783.

Note that this was four years before the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia and five years before the election for the first President of the United States created by that Constitution. The presidency that Washington would step into was still several years off when the Treaty of Paris was signed. The only "president of the United States" at the time of General Washington's retirement was the head of the Congress under the nascent Articles of Confederation, and that was a very different office from the one created by the Constitution in 1787-88.

General Washington would of course come out of retirement to attend, and later preside over, the Constitutional Convention in 1787. That body was called to revise the Articles of Confederation. It ended up replacing them entirely. The requisite number of states ratified the new compact by the time of the presidential election in 1788. George Washington was unanimously elected. By that time, he was out of retirement, being an advocate for the new Constitution.

After two terms as President, Washington announced his retirement again, returning to Mount Vernon. He was called once more out of retirement by President John Adams who asked him to command the American army in preparation for a possible invasion from France, a Revolutionary War ally that had experienced a violent change in government. Washington agreed on the condition that he remain at Mount Vernon. His second-in-command, Alexander Hamilton, became the effective commander of the American army, which was dissolved once peace with France was established.

Retirement is actually one of the keys to Washington's greatness. Washington had several opportunities to seize power and essentially hold it until his death. He could've been a king or dictator in America. He refused. His humility and self-restraint make him one of the greatest leaders in all of history.

**For more on George Washington's character, check out The Religion of George Washington: The Faith and Moral Philosophy of our Greatest Founding Father

George Washington Resigns His Commission on December 23, 1783

On this day in 1783, General George Washington strode into the State Capitol Building in Annapolis, Maryland and did one of the most remarkable things anyone has ever done in the history of the world. The phrase may be trite, but Washington was "on top of the world" or at least his world. Many Americans already regarded him as the father of his country, and more than a few expected him (and were even calling upon him) to become dictator of the new nation just as Oliver Cromwell had done in England over a century prior. It was the natural order of things, but Washington flatly refused such a suggestion and instead did something virtually unheard of.

Other than Vietnam and the 21st century's "War on Terror," the American Revolution (aka the Revolutionary War) was the longest war in U.S. history. Next to the American Civil War, it was also the war that hurt Americans at home more than any other. And at the end of the war in 1783, the new nation was in disarray and desperate for strong leadership. They weren't getting such leadership from Congress, which was impotent under the Articles of Confederation. They needed a strong national leader to bring the various states and factions together, heal the nation's economy, shore up the nation's security, project strength abroad, and forge a path toward progress. The temptation for Washington to be that guy must have been enormous, but Washington knew the cost of giving into such pressure. This new nation, in Washington's mind, should not be characterized by dictators, kings, martial law, violent insurrections, or the bloody transfer of power. As difficult and frustrating as the path might be, Washington believed the only sure path to national success was one that honored the Rule of Law and popular consent.

With this in mind, Washington kept his army in the field after the victory in Yorktown to keep pressure on the British, while at the same time doing his best to keep peace in the Continental Army itself - an army torn with strife over inadequate supplies and unpaid wages. In early 1783, he talked down his officers from leading an open revolt against Congress (even resorting to a display of theatrics with his spectacles) and turned away any and all suggestions that he become king or dictator. Though such an offer was never formally made, the prospect was dangled in front of him continually throughout 1783. Finally, in December of that year, just weeks after the British formally recognized American independence (bringing the American Revolution to an official end), Washington made his decision. He would leave the army and go home as a private citizen. And he would leave the success of America in the hands of civilian authority.

On December 23, 1783, Washington made good on his promise. Appearing before the Congress in Annapolis, the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army (and, as such, the most powerful man in America) resigned his military commission and (in his words) took "leave of all the employments of public life." In his brief remarks Washington offered: "I consider it an indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my Official life, by commending the Interests of our dearest Country to the protection of Almighty God, and those who have the superintendence of them, to his holy keeping." According to one observer, there was in the Congress that day a "shedding of copious tears."

We now know, of course, that Washington's retirement was not permanent. But he (in 1783) didn't know that, and neither did the nation. It was only with great reluctance that Washington answered the call to public life again in 1787 with the Constitutional Convention and then in 1789 to take the oath as the first President of the United States under the U.S. Constitution.

The day after resigning his commission before Congress in 1783, George Washington rode his horse back to his beloved Mount Vernon as a private citizen to spend Christmas with his loving wife, Martha. This was the greatest Christmas present Washington could give to the United States. We still benefit from this gift today, though we take it for granted. So remarkable was it for a victorious leader of a revolution and a new nation to walk away from power that King George III called Washington "the greatest man in the world." Indeed he was, and in my opinion, he remains one of the greatest men in human history.

**For more on George Washington's character, check out The Religion of George Washington: The Faith and Moral Philosophy of our Greatest Founding Father

General Washington Bids Farewell to His Officers

On this day (December 4) in 1783, General George Washington held a private reception in the Long Room of Fraunces Tavern for his officers, many of whom had served alongside him for most, if not all, of the American Revolution. This reception was one of the few times in Washington's life where he was unable to contain his emotions. As the reception drew to a close, Washington toasted his officers, saying: "With a heart full of love and gratitude I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days may be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable." He then asked his officers to come to him, so that he could greet them individually and wish them well. 

General Henry Knox, one of Washington's most loyal and steadfast officers, was the first to take the hand of his retiring commander. The normally granite, self-controlled Washington was, according to Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge, "suffused in tears" and "incapable of utterance." As each officer came by to take the general's hand and express their appreciation, Washington's emotions were "too strong to be concealed." In his memoirs, Tallmadge wrote: "Such a scene of sorrow and weeping I had never before witnessed and fondly hope I may never be called to witness again.

While we should rightly be moved by the mutual affection felt between Washington and his officers, we must also recognize what this moment meant for the United States of America. The greatest act of George Washington's life was when he voluntarily resigned as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army upon Britain's official recognition of American independence. This marked one of the ONLY times in recorded history where the victor of a revolution walked away from power willingly. Washington would do this once again when he voluntarily left office after two terms as President, but this resignation beats even that. For in 1783, George Washington was, without dispute, the most powerful man in the country, and a majority of Americans at that time would have gladly accepted him as king or dictator. Given the chaotic conditions of the infant nation in the immediate aftermath of the American Revolution and before the current Constitution was ratified, it had to be tempting. But Washington flatly refused any suggestion of dictatorship. Instead, he returned his commission to Congress and returned to his beloved Mount Vernon as a private citizen. For this act alone, Washington deserves every monument erected to him and every school, building, city, or state named in his honor. And he deserves the gratitude of every American living today.

Important Facts About General George Washington

George Washington is perhaps the most familiar name in the United States and one of the best known names in the world. Yet few people actually know much about George Washington, beyond the basic, elementary facts of his resume and a few well-worn (largely discredited) cliches involving cherry trees and wooden teeth.

A few years ago, while teaching American history in high school, I used to challenge my students with the question: "Do you think you know a lot about George Washington?" Since Washington is one of my heroes (and my students thus had heard me talk about him a fair amount), they were convinced they did. So, I would have them take out a piece of paper and write ten of Washington's specific deeds or accomplishments. I still recall how their confidence would inevitably and very quickly evaporate. Like most Americans, my students seemed unable to retain much in the way of specifics when it came to George Washington.

Several years ago, James Rees, resident director of Historic Mount Vernon, lamented this growing ignorance of America's father. "Among young people, and young adults, we find many who don't know Washington was the first president and can't say what century he lived in," said Rees. "My fourth grade textbook had 10 times as many pages on Washington as the one the same school uses now. And there is a sizable fraction of our visitors who can't tell you whose portrait is on the $1 bill."

This particular post will look at the most important facts about George Washington's military career. In a future post, we'll look at Washington's presidency.

Important Facts About General George Washington
 
So, what are the most important facts about George Washington's military leadership? Here are the basics:

• George Washington was a respected Virginia plantation owner, colonial politician, and French and Indian War (Seven  Years' War) veteran on the eve of the American Revolution. (It is, of course, also important to know that the Seven Years' War or French & Indian War preceded the American Revolution, and helped set the stage for it.)
• Washington supported colonial rights during the buildup of tensions with Great Britain, serving in both the First Continental Congress (1774) and Second Continental Congress (1775). 
• Based on John Adams' recommendation, George Washington was appointed by the Second Continental Congress to command the Continental Army and lead armed resistance against the British Empire.
• As Commander-in-Chief of the nascent and evolving Continental Army, Washington declined to be paid for his services, but kept meticulous records of his expenses during the war (which he submitted for reimbursement).
• Washington became Continental Army general at age 43. Most movies and paintings show Washington leading American troops as an old man with white hair. In fact, Washington was tough, healthy, middle-aged man at the time of the Revolutionary War.
• From 1775 until 1783, General Washington presided over the growth of a largely untrained, thoroughly ill-equipped and ill-prepared "army" into a formidable (albeit still inadequately paid and poorly supplied) fighting force.
• Washington was a brave and courageous leader, risking his life under fire numerous times.
• Washington was a creative, but inexperienced battlefield tactician. Though he made several battlefield mistakes, he nevertheless demonstrated great charisma, strong courage, dogged persistence, and a brilliant grasp of the strategic picture.
• General Washington arguably saved the American Revolution with his famous, and quite audacious, crossing of the Delaware River on Christmas Night 1776 to attack the Hessian garrison at Trenton, New Jersey.
• The last major battle of the American Revolution was at Yorktown, Virginia (1781), where a combined French and American land force, supported by the French navy, bottled up Lord General Charles Cornwallis and his British forces. This resulted in a change-of-government in London and the beginnings of peace negotiations between Colonial America and the British Empire.
• With peace negotiations ongoing, Washington kept his poorly supplied and insufficiently paid troops in the field for nearly two full years, working diligently to ease tensions and preserve domestic peace.
• Washington flatly refused offers of any sort of dictatorship, and instead appealed to his officers at a famous speech in Newburgh to support the civilian government and stand down from any talk of insurrection.
• Britain granted American independence in 1783, and George Washington resigned his commission as Commander-in-Chief, becoming one of the only revolutionary leaders in world history to walk away from power. 

George Washington would, of course, come out of retirement in 1787 to preside over the Constitutional Convention and would soon become the nation's first President  under the new Constitution. But were it not for Washington's military leadership during the Revolutionary War, there would've been no Constitution and no presidency.

George Washington's generalship and his statesmanship (in the war's final stages) are what made America possible. This is something that all Americans should appreciate and never forget.

Washington Saves America at Newburgh

On March 15, 1783, General George Washington made an impassioned and ultimately successful appeal at Newburgh, New York for his Continental Army officers to not lead a coup against the civilian U.S. government.

The Road to Newburgh

Tensions between the Continental Army and the U.S. government over back pay and poor supplies had existed throughout the American Revolution. They became volcanic in the latter part of the war, nearly causing an eruption several times. Following the British surrender at Yorktown, the patience of the Continental Army wore extremely thin.

As negotiations dragged on between American diplomats and their British counterparts over how to resolve remaining differences and establish formal recognition of the United States, Washington kept his army in the field. Yet, in doing so, Washington kept officers and troops in the field who had not been paid for years. With the war winding down (and, in fact, all but over), many Continental officers and soldiers believed (with good reason) that they would NEVER receive what had been promised them.

It was in this context that George Washington was asked to declare martial law and install himself as dictator. He flatly refused. But a conspiracy to use the army to pressure the civilian government and force the states into a strong federal union continued to build. Many of the conspirators were determined to move ahead, with or without Washington's support.

Washington at Newburgh

To get ahead of events, Washington called for a special March 15 meeting of his officers, with Horatio Gates presiding. Washington indicated he would not attend. But...he did. When he arrived unexpectedly, the facial expressions of his officers and the tension in the room let it be known that he was not welcome.

Washington gave an impassioned speech to the assembly, urging patience and restraint. And he read a letter from a congressman to support his case. While reading the letter, he fumbled with the words and then fished out a pair of spectacles. Most of those in the room were unaware of the General's declining eyesight. Washington, a fan of the theater, played the awkwardness to the hilt! Explaining his use of glasses, Washington said simply: "Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray but almost blind in the service of my country."

When he had finished reading, he looked up, saw most of the room in tears. Knowing when to exit, Washington quickly concluded his remarks and left the room. And the conspiracy collapsed!

In that moment, General George Washington saved the legacy of the American Revolution, confirmed civilian oversight of the military, and put the United States on the course to being the most successful republic in world history.

Related Reading

For more on this subject, check out...

"The Rise and Fall of the Newburgh Conspiracy" by George Marshall, Jr.

George Washington's War: The Forging of a Revolutionary Leader and the American Presidency by Bruce Chadwick

The Six-Star General

The highest ranking general in the United States Army is.....dead. Only one person holds the rank, and he is no longer alive - and hasn't been for quite some time. But the rank is official. No one alive has ever held the rank at the time of his (or her) service. And this will probably never change. What am I talking about????

Well, the highest possible rank in the US Army is "General of the Armies of the United States," a rank considered in the 1950s for retired (but still living) five-star General Douglas MacArthur. Had the idea gone through, MacArthur would've received a sixth star! For various complications, MacArthur declined the promotion, and the proposal was scuttled.

But, in the 1970s, the proposal was revived - not for MacArthur (who died in the 1960s), but for a general who died at the close of the 1700s! You guessed it...


George Washington


During the American Revolution, Washington was titled "General and Commander in Chief" and held the equivalent rank of a Major General (who wears two stars). When the Quasi-War with France erupted, President John Adams named Washington as the commander of a newly formed American army - to protect the nation in case of a French invasion (which never came). Washington was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General (a three-star position).

Washington died in 1799, but no one outranked him, until World War I. In that conflict, John J. Pershing was given a fourth star. And in World War II, several leaders were given a fifth star - including Douglas MacArthur, Dwight Eisenhower, and George Marshall.

In the 1970s, Congress appropriately moved to remedy this situation. No one, they reasoned (correctly - in my opinion) should ever outrank America's FIRST general. So, they created the position of "General of the Armies of the United States" - a six star general rank. And they posthumously promoted George Washington to the position.

To this day, George Washington is the only person in US history to ever hold this rank. And he, of course, only holds it in death.

Will we ever have a LIVING six-star general? Probably not. And if we do, will they give George Washington a seventh star? :-)

Washington Takes the Oath of Office

I really like how HBO showed the awkwardness and nervousness of the principal characters present at George Washington's swearing-in as President of the United States.



When Washington adds "so help me God" to the presidential oath, those watching this scene truly understand why. It wasn't a political ploy to appeal to Christian voters - not then and not now. As courageous as Washington was in war, he was genuinely troubled by this responsibility he was undertaking. He did not feel himself adequate to the role, and was deeply concerned he would fail. And he knew that failure would not only wreck his reputation, it could also doom the nation. To steal a phrase from the movie Apollo 13: "Failure [was] not an option!" So, Washington placed his fate and that of the United States in the hand of Providence. "So help me God" was indeed an understandable thing to say.

Was George Washington a Great General?

How would you rank George Washington as a general? He lost more battles than he won, and he had an occasional habit of leaving his flanks unprotected. He also could be temperamental at times.

But could anyone else other than George Washington have pulled off an American victory in the Revolutionary War?

No, says Edward Lengel, author of General George Washington, a military biography of America's first general (and later first President).



Lengel argues that Washington may have been only a mediocre battlefield tactician. Indeed, his battlefield record is "mixed." But, says Lengel in the lecture linked below, as an administrator, political general, and moral leader, George Washington was unmatched.



What Lengel points out is that there's more to generalship than battlefield tactics. Generals like Napoleon Bonaparte, Robert E. Lee, Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson, and George S. Patton may have been wizards on the battlefield, but that's not all there is to being a general. And this was especially true for the Continental Army in the American Revolution.

This is why Michael Lee Lanning, author of The Military 100, ranks George Washington as the most influential military commander in all of world history! Lanning admits that Washington's high ranking isn't due to battlefield brilliance, but rather to overall generalship - and the indispensable role that Washington played in winning America's independence.



For my own part, I think General Washington's battlefield tactics are sometimes UNDER-rated. It's true that Washington left his flanks unguarded at times, and that he periodically failed to properly reconnoiter the field. However, when pressed to the wall, Washington's brilliance came out.

For one thing, Washington was a masterful escape artist - as was seen in Long Island and just after Trenton (and before Princeton). He was the "Houdini" of the Revolution! For another, Washington was spectacular in sewing seeds of deception in his enemy - through espionage (he was America's first spymaster) or through clever maneuvering. And finally, Washington was audacious when he needed to be - such as at Trenton.

Most importantly (and even those critical of Washington's generalship concede this), George Washington was the most determined leader of the American cause. It's hard to imagine a more desirable concept for the leader of an army that was perpetually outnumbered, ill-equipped, inadequately trained, and poorly paid -- and up against the mightiest empire in the world.

The United States of America is here today, because of General George Washington.